INTRODUCTION

Most stepfamily households are comprised of stepfather–stepchild relationships due to the large percentage of mothers being granted custody after a divorce (Bernstein, 1990; Bornstein, 2019; White & Gilbreth, 2001). Stepfamilies are already a complex family system with their own set of unique challenges; however, these challenges are exacerbated when a stepfather and the NRBF are involved. Biological fathers are encouraged to maintain a close and supportive relationship with their children (Amato et al., 2011); however, their involvement creates boundary ambiguity and role conflict with stepfathers (Boss & Greenberg, 1984; Stewart, 2005). A strong collaborative relationship is hoped for; however, a competitive relationship is established in which stepfathers must negotiate their standings in the stepfamily (Marsiglio & Hinojosa, 2007). This negotiation can be met with deference to the NRBFs, or it can be met with resistance from the NRBFs, who impinge on the stepfathers’ ability to take on a fathering role. (Marsiglio, 2004; Marsiglio & Hinojosa, 2007; White & Gilbreth, 2001).

Stepfathers often assume their stepfamily will function like a nuclear family, overlooking the role of the non-residential biological father (Cartwright, 2010; Marsiglio, 2004; Papernow, 2013). Lack of preparation for co-fathering challenges hinders a conducive relationship with the NRBF (Cartwright, 2010; Marsiglio, 2004; Papernow, 2013). Stepfathers must navigate building stepfamily relationships, preserving their authority, and establishing a healthy co-fathering dynamic with the NRBF (Ganong & Coleman, 2017; Gold & Adeyemi, 2013; Martin-Uzzi & Duval-Tsioles, 2013; Higginbotham et al., 2012; Petren et al., 2018; Pettigrew, 2013). Understanding this balance is crucial (Gold, 2010; Riness & Sailor, 2015).

Tailored premarital counseling for stepfamilies is crucial (Papernow, 2018). Only 25 percent of stepfamily couples receive it (Wheeler, 2015). Therapists should understand stepfathers’ challenges to address concerns and promote effective family blending (Jensen et al., 2017). Developing a good relationship with the NRBF may require the help of a skilled therapist whose training and experience in stepfamily dynamics can help meet the challenges of stepfamily living. This qualitative study was conducted to better understand the challenges of stepfathers as they strive to co-father with NRBFs. Having a better understanding of this phenomenon will assist clinicians who work with this population in helping to normalize, without minimizing, the challenges that are unique to this population and to implement preemptive strikes against these inevitable challenges. The significance of this research may help clinicians better understand the problems encountered by the stepfathers and be able to diagnose, treat, and implement concrete strategies for navigating this family constellation (Browning & Artelt, 2012; Gold, 2017). This phenomenological study was guided by two research questions:

(1) What are the lived experiences of stepfathers who must co-father with the NRBF?; and (2) What can be done to better equip stepfathers in their co-fathering role?

BACKGROUND

Two societal trends have dramatically redefined the culture of the American family. Firstly, following a divorce, approximately two-thirds of fathers remain actively involved in the lives of their children (Cheadle et al., 2010; Coleman et al., 2007; Ganong & Coleman, 2017; Kruk, 2016), and secondly, stepfamilies are on the rise, with stepfathers being a part of approximately 85 percent of all stepfamilies (Ganong et al., 2019; Gold, 2015). These stepfather-led stepfamilies will undoubtedly cross paths with the NRBFs, and there will be a myriad of challenges that come along with these sticky situations. Two men, two fathers, both influential actors in the lives of the children (White & Gilbreth, 2001), yet little is known about how one relationship affects the other (MacDonald & DeMaris, 2002) or how to make the co-fathering relationship work. Research has shown that the involvement of the NRBF may hinder the stepfather from effectively integrating into the family (Petren et al., 2018).

A few major family challenges encountered by stepfathers include stepchildren’s loyalty binds, family cultures, and insider/outsider challenges (Papernow, 2018). Loyalty binds are created when children are caught in an emotional tug of war-between liking the stepfather and feeling that they have betrayed the NRBF parent as a result (Jensen & Shafer, 2013; Papernow, 2018). Children may resist building or establishing a new family culture because of their comfort level with their already established culture (Papernow, 2018). The stepfather seeks to connect with the family and establish positive interaction with the children; however, the challenge remains that the NRBF will almost always be considered the insider, while the stepfather stands on the sidelines as an outsider to the interaction. The NRBF shares a strong bond with his children, and the children are often resistant to allowing the stepfather into their private inner circle (Papernow, 2018; Sanner et al., 2020).

Stepfather expectations may collide with the expectations of the NRBF (Petren et al., 2018), creating role conflict, ambiguity, and frustration. Any conflict that the stepfather has with the NRBF can negatively affect the children in the home and undermine any efforts at forming a functional stepfamily (Cartwright & Gibson, 2013). However, when there is unity and effective negotiation strategies between the stepfather and the NRBF, the stepfamily functioning is strengthened and more durable (Maclean et al., 2016).

Research consistently acknowledges the crucial impact of fathers on their children’s well-being (Flouri, 2006; Hornstra et al., 2020). As the number of biological fathers in homes decreases, stepfathers willingly assume the father figure role, with studies showing that engaged stepfathers have a positive impact on stepchildren similar to biological fathers (Amato & Rivera, 1999; Hawkins et al., 2007; Hetherington, 1993; Jensen & Pace, 2016; White & Gilbreth, 2001; Yuan & Hamilton, 2006). A good, complementary relationship between the non-residential biological father and the stepfather benefits the children (White & Gilbreth, 2001).

Research supports the possibility of a healthy co-fathering relationship between the non-residential biological father (NRBF) and stepfather (White & Gilbreth, 2001). The involvement of both fathers improves children’s well-being (Astone & McLanahan, 1991; White & Gilbreth, 2001), while unity and effective negotiation between them strengthen stepfamily functioning (Maclean et al., 2016). Positive stepfather-child bonds are linked to interactions between the NRBF and stepfather (Hornstra et al., 2020), and some stepfathers are willing to have a friendly, father-ally relationship with the NRBF (Marsiglio & Hinojosa, 2007). However, stepfathers acting as allies must navigate balancing the NRBF’s relationship with the children while building their own fatherly bond (White & Gilbreth, 2001).

The question may be asked, “How should an engaged stepfather-to-be adequately prepare for the upcoming challenges of co-parenting with the NRBF? Research shows that taking a psychoeducational approach is the best way to help any stepparent with these challenges (Gold, 2010). Naively thinking that a stepfamily will function in the same capacity as a nuclear family is a recipe for disaster and for years of heartache (Gold & Adeyemi, 2013; Papernow, 2015). Becoming not only a stepfather but also a co-father with the NRBF is an experience that can be both rewarding and challenging. Rather than being intimidated and/or blindsided by this experience, there are things that the stepfathers can do to develop their relationship in a positive direction, thus strengthening the stepfamily relationship. Being empowered with knowledge and skills is the best approach to conquering this challenge (Scott et al., 2013).

The stepfather’s primary tasks are to acknowledge the family’s differences and his role, and to understand that he is entering an established system where he may be seen as an outsider (Papernow, 2013). Blending a family requires time and patience, with an average of three to five years for a stepfamily to establish itself (Michaels, 2006; Robertson et al., 2006).

Stepfamilies should seek professional guidance from experts familiar with the stepfamily experience, and couples should apply the information provided (Visher & Visher, 2013). Understanding stepfathers’ experiences is crucial for clinicians to develop appropriate therapeutic interventions for positive and supportive relationships between stepfathers and non-residential biological fathers while avoiding confrontational dynamics (Adler-Baeder & Higginbotham, 2004). Additionally, stepfather input is valuable for creating parenting education programs tailored to stepfamilies, acknowledging the non-residential biological father’s role as part of the family system and fostering reduced stress, increased unity, improved marital quality, and better relationships with stepchildren (Ganong et al., 2019; Shapiro & Stewart, 2011).

This study addressed how stepfathers can build and strengthen their relationship with the stepfamily without succumbing to the involvement and, oftentimes, the interference of the NRBF. Many stepfamilies are destroyed because of a lack of knowledge and their failure to adapt to stressful events that have overtaken the family (i.e., divorce, remarriage, and stepfamily formation). Rather than remaining in a culture where stepfathers feel like an outsider in their own homes, stepfathers can enhance their experiences by developing a more collaborative and healthier style of shared fathering with the NRBF (Marsiglio, 2004).

Methods

Participants of this study (pseudonyms Robert, David, Anthony, Jerome, and John) included heterosexual resident stepfathers who had both frequent communication and interaction with the NRBF. In addition, stepfather participants met the following criteria: (a) in a marital relationship with the biological mother of the child(ren); (b) married for no more than seven years; and (c) experiencing marital challenges, perhaps due to the involvement of the NRBF. A semi-structured interview was conducted, in which the participants were asked approximately 20 to 25 open-ended questions. Questions were designed to elicit information about stepfathers’ lived experiences on how they think, feel, or believe that the NRBF is impacting his relationship with the stepchildren. Participant interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed for meanings relative to the phenomenon.

Results

Colaizzi’s phenomenological methodology (Wirihana et al., 2018) was applied to interpret the research data and to generate an exhaustive description of the phenomenon (Gumarang et al., 2021). Significant statements were extracted from the data, and meaning was assigned to these statements. These statements were then assigned codes, which were later condensed into themes. Careful analysis of the data yielded four themes that were prevalent with all stepfather participants (Wirihana et al., 2018): (a) the need to belong/be accepted; (b) the need to establish authority; (c) the need for communication; and (d) the need for guidance.

The Need to Belong/To Be Accepted

According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, people have a psychological need to feel that they belong to and are accepted by a specific social group (Crandall et al., 2019). All the stepfathers in the research study indicated that they had a desire to be included and a desire to feel accepted in this preexisting biological family dynamic. The stepfathers reflected on their encounters with feeling like an insider/outsider, attachment, cordiality, and unrealistic beliefs as it relates to their need to belong and to be accepted.

David explained that he saw how much his stepdaughter loved her biological father, and he desired the same type of relationship with her. Whenever his stepdaughter gets upset, he longs for her to come to him for advice, but she will instead seek counsel from her mother or the NRBF. David resigned to being an outsider, stating, “I’m just trying to find my way in, and I do not know if I will ever find it.”

Yet, John recognized that he would never have the same type of relationship with his stepchildren as the NRBF. Even though he lived in the home with the stepchildren and the NRBF rarely came into town to see them, John knew that there was a shared history between them and an attachment. John “never tried to break up the relationship that he [NRBF] had with his children. I knew that they loved their father, and no matter what I did for them, they would always prefer their father.”

Jerome recalled that because his stepdaughter has a strong attachment to the NRBF, he had a difficult time getting to know her and building a relationship with her. It was necessary to keep a cordial relationship with the NRBF so that the stepdaughter would not feel that she had to side with her father. “I wanted her to see that her two fathers could get along with one another and that there would not be any arguing.”

Another father, Robert, admitted that he was a bit disillusioned with how he thought his stepfamily would be. He stated that he did not want to be considered a stepfather to his stepdaughter. He wanted her to see him as another father:

“I am just like her regular dad. That’s my daughter! I treat her like one of my own kids. When my daughter leaves to go with her NRBF, that’s his daughter, but when she returns home, she is now my daughter.”

The Need to Establish Authority

All stepfathers indirectly expressed their need to have some type of authority in the home. They entered their stepfamily with expectations that they would have respect and leadership authority almost immediately. It had not entered their mind that this was something that would have to be fought for as the family adjusted to their coming into the home. This theme expressed adjustment issues, stepfather role expectations, expectations for NRBF, power/control, and stress/conflict as it relates to the stepfather’s need for authority.

Adjustment. Robert discussed the ways in which his family struggled to adjust to the structure he was implementing in the home. He had retired from the military and valued structure and discipline. His stepdaughters had a difficult time adjusting to his structure in the home.

Robert was the new voice in the home, and it was a voice that not everyone was happy to hear at times.

Stepfather Role Expectations. Anthony stated that his expectation was to be a second father to his stepson, Trey. He expected that he would be a disciplinarian and bring some structure to the home. His wife was a disciplinarian in the home, but she was not always consistent. Anthony said this about his expectations of being a second father to Trey:

“I knew that I would ruffle a few feathers whenever I tried to put my foot down about certain things. There are certain behaviors that I will not tolerate. I wouldn’t be a good father if I allowed certain things to continue. I cannot let Trey think that his father is in charge of my household.”

Role of NRBF. Robert indicated that he had very few expectations for the NRBF. He wanted that NRBF “to respect him as a man and respect him as someone who is there for his stepchildren.”

Jerome stated, “I needed him to know that I am not trying to compete. I only want to enhance what is already in place.” He also wanted to make sure that a healthy relationship was established between the two fathers so that they could co-father.

Power/Control. All the stepfathers interviewed felt the need to establish boundaries outside the home with the NRBF and inside the home with their stepchildren. It was not a means to assert power and control over anyone but to establish a guide for what was acceptable and what was not acceptable in the home. Boundaries were established early on with Jerome. He recognized that his stepdaughter and her NRBF had an extremely close relationship, and he told her:

“When I am not around, I want you to respect the household and what we have going on here. Do not talk to your dad about anything that is supposed to stay in our household. I know you love him, but you have to respect the boundaries and privacy of the home.”

The Need for Communication

Communication in any type of family structure can be challenging. How family members talk and act with one another indicates how well they will function as a family. These stepfathers desired to have healthy communication and a collaborative parenting relationship with the NRBF, but not one of them was able to accomplish this.

Relationship with the NRBF. David spoke about his communication with the NRBF as being nonexistent. “He is so unapproachable. He keeps his distance, and I keep mine.” He explained,

“My expectation for him is that maybe one day we could talk, that we could open up to one another. After all, we share the same thing. That’s your daughter, but she’s my daughter, too.”

Robert discussed that he does not have a desire to be friends with the NRBF, and he indicated that he is not sure if the NRBF would be able to understand the difference between friendship versus co-fathering.

Cooperate or Compete. Jerome wanted to make it clear that he had no desire to compete with the NRBF. Jerome still considered the NRBF to be a part of the family, and he would like it if the NRBF “came around more and do something more like a family function. Then I could take the initiative and talk more. I’m not trying to be his friend, but I can be cordial and talk to him.” He added, “We cannot function as a family if we compete with one another.”

The Need for Guidance

These stepparents entered their family situation having high expectations and high hopes. When the challenges set in, many become disheartened. These stepfathers indicated that it is their faith in God and wise counsel from others that has helped them to navigate the murky waters of stepfathering with an involved NRBF.

Faith in God. Anthony is a man of faith, who believes that God placed him in this family unit for a specific purpose.

“Although the enemy wants nothing more than to see me walk away from this, I am committed to my family. I am here for both my stepson and my wife. I pray daily and ask my God to give me strength and wisdom to know how to be a father to my stepson. I’m not taking anything away from his father, but I know that God has an assignment for me, as well.”

Advice from Others. Jerome acknowledges that sometimes he feels that he is in too deep. He has family members who are in stepfather relationships, and Jerome gets counsel from them. Jerome wished that there was premarital counseling that could have better prepared him for this journey.

“We need counseling in every aspect, whether that be for the marriage or for becoming a stepdad. I think that should be part of the pre-marital counseling, and the NRBF should be included.”

Discussion

When addressing the lived experiences of stepfathers who co-father with a non-resident biological father (NRBF), they envisioned greatness for their stepfamily but received less than mediocre outcomes. Their experiences in the stepfamily have some of the stepfathers wondering if it is all worth the hassle.

A major challenge that stepfathers face is the involvement of the NRBF, whose presence can be intrusive at times. They recognize that the NRBF’s involvement is needed, but it comes at a cost, which is usually peace in the home and limited involvement with the stepchildren. Stepfathers do not wish the biological father away, but they want him to respect their role in the home.

In this phenomenological study, the need to belong and to be accepted appears to be a big challenge with stepfathers. This theme recognizes that stepfathers want to feel wanted and appreciated for the sacrifices that they make for their new families. The stepfathers realize that they are entering into a preexisting, ready-made family that may not take too kindly to an outsider coming in and changing the family dynamic. There is a need for the NRBF and the stepchildren to understand that the stepfathers are not coming into the family to take over the role of a father, nor are they trying to diminish the relationship that the NRBF has with his children.

These stepfathers take on a great deal of responsibility for their stepchildren, performing many tasks of the NRBF, yet they do not get the appreciation for what they do. Their need to belong and to be accepted often comes out in their frustration. This was evident in the case of Anthony, who was very eager to “pour into the life of his stepson,” Trey. Trey’s biological father, however, was not as eager for Anthony’s involvement and had a difficult time accepting Anthony in his role as a stepfather. The NRBF was not quite sure that he wanted to accept Anthony as an “insider” until he knew that Anthony was committed to the relationship and committed to caring for his son. This frustrated and hampered the stepfather/stepchild bonding process and was a test of endurance for Anthony. Anthony did not give up trying to build a relationship with his stepchild. Stepfathers who feel the need to rush the bonding process are doing it more so out of a need to be accepted.

Unrealistic expectations or beliefs also guide the stepfathers’ need to belong and to be accepted. They want so badly for their stepfamily to be accepted as a loving family, and they want it to look and operate just like a nuclear family. Stepfathers mistakenly believe that family blending is supposed to happen immediately and that there will be instant love. They are idealistic in their belief that they and the NRBFs will be able to collaboratively work together in fatherhood. Because these are all unrealistic expectations, the stepfamily dynamic is usually riddled with miscommunication, misunderstanding, and much confusion.

It has been noted from all the stepfathers in this research that they believe that they would have fared better in their co-fathering with a NRBF if they had premarital counseling specific for stepfamilies. Premarital counseling for stepfamilies would help to strengthen the marital relationship by equipping stepfathers with the means of handling conflict with NRBFs, helping all parents to define their roles and have realistic expectations for their stepfamily journey.

Implications

Practical Implications

This study has practical implications for therapists, counselors, clergy, and others involved in the behavioral health field who work with families. There have been several societal trends that have redefined the American family. Two of the trends have implications and are relevant to this study. There has been an increase in stepfather-led stepfamily formations (Ganong et al., 2019), and there has also been an increase in the number of biological fathers who maintain relationships with their children following a divorce (Coleman et al., 2007; Ganong & Coleman, 2017). Stepfathers are seeking therapeutic counsel to help with their adjustment to this family dynamic. It is important for therapists to understand the challenges that are created when the stepfathers and NRBFs exist together and try to co-father (MacDonald & DeMaris, 2002).

Previous studies have shown that the involvement of the NRBF can have either positive or negative implications for the stepfamily (McNamee et al., 2014; Yuan & Hamilton, 2006). Therapists who work with individuals in stepfamilies should be prepared to answer several questions: What is the best approach to helping the stepfamily to become more successful and functional? How should future stepfathers adequately prepare for the challenges of co-parenting with the NRBF? Therapists who work with stepfamilies should already know that this population should not be treated as a traditional family. Stepfamilies are very distinct, with a set of unique challenges, and should not be treated as reconstituted nuclear family units (Ganong & Coleman, 2017; Visher & Visher, 1996).

As this research study indicated, the needs of the stepfather are very different from the needs of the NRBF. The stepfather’s needs to be accepted, to establish authority, for communication, and for guidance are not things that NRBFs typically need. The results suggest that therapeutic intervention should center around providing information and support to the stepfathers so that their needs can be appropriately met.

Research indicates that a psychoeducational approach is essential to support stepfathers. Offering premarital and post-marital education to step-couples, covering stepfamily challenges, development, and normalizing stepfamily experiences can be beneficial. Focusing on establishing a healthy co-fathering relationship with the non-residential biological father (NRBF) is also crucial for improving stepfamily dynamics (Gold, 2010; Ganong & Coleman, 2017).

It may be necessary to create a curriculum that would address the traditional topics of treating stepfamilies, but several other components should be added. The overall goal of the educational program is to coach the entire stepfamily system (those directly involved) on how to become a fully functional stepfamily. Necessary family members include the stepfather, mother, children, and the NRBF. Additional topics should address such issues as step-fathering/step-parenting, role clarification, having a healthy relationship with the former spouse, integrating the NRBF into the new marriage, integrating the stepfather into the family, communication, and healthy boundaries within the marriage. These topics should be instrumental in meeting the needs of the stepfather, thereby paving the way for healthy and effective co-fathering.

Biblical Implications

When considering the biblical implications of this research study, one cannot help but turn to Jesus and focus on His earthly father, Joseph. Joseph assumed the role of stepfather to Jesus. He acknowledged that God was Jesus’ heavenly Father whose presence was very real in the life of Jesus. Joseph did not try to replace Jesus’ Father; he knew being a stepfather was a role that had been entrusted to him. Joseph was the perfect model for all stepfathers. He loved, cared for, and provided for Jesus, and most importantly, he accepted Jesus and never tried to strip Jesus of His identity.

Luke 2:41–52 (King James Bible, 1769/2017) details the story of Jesus being lost and separated from His parents for several days. Upon finding Jesus sitting in the temple courts, Mary and Joseph were met with truth but did not fully realize what was happening. Although Joseph and Mary expected Jesus to return home with them, Jesus chose to stay behind and be with His Father in His Father’s house. In essence, at that moment, Jesus was torn between two houses.

The stepfathers in this research study faced similar situations in which they felt that preference was given to the NRBFs, despite the love, care, and provisions that the stepfathers made for their stepchildren. Like Jesus, there were times when the children were torn between two houses. This was the case with Jerome, who could not understand why his stepdaughter always wanted to spend the weekends with her father. Rather than remaining defensive or feeling rejected, Jerome had to acknowledge that his stepdaughter’s love for her NRBF did not minimize or negate the love that Jerome would continue to show his stepdaughter.

Some of the participant stepfathers acknowledged that it is their faith in God that helps them get through the tough times. As they pursue their need for guidance, stepfathers could look at the life of Joseph for the best guidance. Joseph showed that co-fathering does not have to be an either/or type of situation. He gave deference to Jesus’ heavenly Father. Because Joseph did not cross boundary lines and force his authoritarian parenting, Jesus grew in wisdom, stature, and favor, with God and with man. Jesus was able to fulfill His purpose. This, too, should be the desire of all stepfathers.

Hosea 4:6 (King James Bible, 1769/2017) states, “My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge.” Many stepfamilies are perishing because there is limited knowledge of how to work through the challenges of a blended family. The NRBF may not even be considered as relevant to the stepfamily dynamic, but this is not the case. Stepfathers may go into this fragile family situation blindly without a full understanding of what a co-fathering relationship with the NRBF will look like. This makes it necessary for the entire stepfamily unit (mother, stepfather, NRBF, and children) to educate themselves on what to expect in the stepfamily and how to approach the inescapable challenges of stepfamilies.

Recommendations and Further Research

This study sought to bring an understanding of the plight of stepfathers who try to co-father with NRBFs. Further, the stepfamily, which includes the biological mother, is perhaps the most important relationship in success. However, their attempt at this feat is often met with resistance by the NRBF, who, for undisclosed reasons, challenges the stepfather’s actions. Though this study jump-started a conversation on what needs to happen to bring these two fathers together, there is still another voice that needs to be considered and heard: the voice of the NRBF and the biological mothers who make up that stepfamily unit.

Future research should consider the NRBF to see what themes are present in his need to maintain control of his “spot” as a father. Questions such as, “What concerns you most about allowing another man to raise your child?” or “If you could have a candid conversation with the stepfather, what would that conversation look like?” could be asked and would offer additional insight into strengthening the co-fathering relationship. Addressing how the NRBF constructs the roles assigned to the stepfather would be helpful for future research. The NRBF could offer a more comprehensive understanding of the stepchild and any concerns that the child may have as it relates to the stepfather/stepchild relationship. Also, it may be worthwhile to conduct a study to find out if the findings of this study are gender specific. More specifically, would these findings be consistent with stepmothers and biological mothers?

Appendix

Sample Interview Questions

1. The following is a sample of the standardized open-ended semi-structured interview questions that were asked of each participant:
2. What are some benefits or advantages to having the NRBF involved in your stepfamily?
3. What are some expectations that you had with becoming a stepfather?
4. What are some expectations that you had for the NRBF?
5. What specifically would you say is your role as a stepfather, knowing that the NRBF is still parenting his child?
6. Describe a time that you felt that your role was eclipsed by the NRBF, and you felt as an outsider.
7. What are some unique challenges that stepfathers face (with stepchildren, NRBF, and/or spouse) as they are adjusting to stepfamily life?
8. How has your relationship with the NRBF impacted your relationship with your stepchild?
9. Has the NRBF affected your ability to parent your stepchild?
10. Who would you say is more instrumental in strengthening your relationship with your stepchild: your spouse (the mother) or the NRBF?
11. What are some typical areas of conflict between the mother/NRBF dyad? Stepfather/NRBF dyad? Mother/stepfather dyad?
12. Of the challenges that you just identified, which would you say was the most significant, and why?
13. Interparental conflict between the biological mother/NRBF and biological mother/stepfather has been shown to have damaging effects on marital quality and child functioning. How has interparental conflict impacted marital and child relationships?
14. Do you think it possible for two men to non-competitively work together in a co-fathering relationship?
15. What value would there be in strengthening your relationship with the NRBF?
16. What do you think will help prepare the stepfamily, including the NRBF, for this journey?

References

Adler-Baeder, F. & Higginbotham, B. (2004). Implications of remarriage and stepfamily formation for marriage education. Family Relations: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 53(5), 448–458.

Amato, P. R., Kane, J. B., & James, S. (2011). Reconsidering the “good divorce.” Family Relations, 60(5), 511–524.

Amato, P. R. & Rivera, F. (1999). Paternal involvement and children’s behavior problems. Journal of Marriage and Family, 61(2), 375–384.

Astone, N. & McLanahan, S. (1991). Family structure, parental practices and high school completion. American Sociological Review, 56(3), 309–320. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096106

Bernstein, A. (1990). Gender and stepfamily life. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 1(4), 1–27.

Bornstein, M. (2019). Handbook of parenting: Being and becoming a parent (3rd ed.). Routledge.

Boss, P. & Greenberg, J. (1984). Family boundary ambiguity: A new variable in family stress theory. Family Process, 23(4), 535–546. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1984.00535.x

Browning, S. & Artelt, E. (2012). Stepfamily therapy: A 10-step clinical approach. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13089-000

Cartwright, C. (2010). Preparing to repartner and live in a stepfamily: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Family Studies, 16(3). https://doi.org/10.5172/jfs.16.3.237

Cartwright, C. & Gibson, K. (2013). The effects of co-parenting relationships with ex-spouses on couples in step-families. Family Matters, 18.

Cheadle, J. E., Amato, P. R., & King, V. (2010). Patterns of nonresident father contact. Demography, 47(1), 205-225.

Coleman, M., Ganong, L., & Warzinik, K. (2007). Family life in 20th-century America. Greenwood Press.

Crandall, A., Powell, E., Bradford, G., Magnusson, B., Hanson, C., Barnes, M., Novilla, M., & Bean, R. (2019). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a framework for understanding adolescent symptoms over time. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29, 273–281.

Flouri, E. (2006). Non-resident fathers’ relationships with their secondary school age children: Determinants and children’s mental health outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 29(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.08.004

Ganong, L. & Coleman, M. (2017). Stepfamily relationships. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7702-1

Ganong, L., Jensen, T., Sanner, C., Russell, L., & Coleman, M. (2019). Stepfathers’ affinity-seeking with stepchildren, stepfather-stepchild relationship quality, marital quality, and stepfamily cohesion among stepfathers and mothers. Journal of Family Psychology, 33(5). https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000518

Gold, J. M. (2010). Helping stepfathers “step away” from the role of “father”: Directions for family intervention. The Family Journal, 18(2), 208–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480710364498

Gold, J. M. (2015). Stepping in, stepping out: Creating stepfamily rhythm. Wiley.

Gold, J. M. (2017). Navigating the tricky waters of being a stepdad. Retrieved from https://www.sbs.com.au/news/insight/article/navigating-the-tricky-waters-of-being-a-stepdad/3pz011epk

Gold, J. M. & Adeyemi, O. (2013). Stepfathers and noncustodial fathers: Two men, one role. The Family Journal, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480712456829

Gumarang, B., Mallannao, R., & Gumarang, B. (2021). Colaizzi’s methods in descriptive phenomenology: Basis of a Filipino novice researcher. International Journal of Multidisciplinary: Applied Business and Education Research, 2(10), 928–933.

Hawkins, D. N., Amato, P. R., & King, V. (2007). Nonresident father involvement and adolescent well-being: Father effects or child effects? American Sociological Review, 72(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200607

Hetherington, E. M. (1993). An overview of the Virginia Longitudinal Study of Divorce and Remarriage with a focus on early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.7.1.39

Higginbotham, B. J., Davis, P., Smith, L., Dansie, L., Skogrand, L., & Reck, K. (2012). Stepfathers and stepfamily education. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 53(1), 76–90.

Hornstra, M., Kalmijn, M., & Ivanova, K. (2020). Fatherhood in complex families: Ties between adult children, biological fathers, and stepfathers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12679

Jensen, T. M. & Pace, G. T. (2016). Stepfather involvement and stepfather–child relationship quality: Race and parental marital status as moderators. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 42(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12165

Jensen, T. M. & Shafer, K. (2013). Stepfamily functioning and closeness: Children’s views on second marriages and stepfather relationships. Social Work, 58(2), 127–136.

Jensen, T. M., Shafer, K., & Holmes, E. K. (2017). Transitioning to stepfamily life: The influence of closeness with biological parents and stepparents on children’s stress. Child & Family Social Work, 22(1), 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12237

King James Bible. (1769/2017). King James Bible Online. www.kingjamesbibleonline.org (Original work published 1769)

Kruk, E. (2016). Divorced fathers at risk of parental alienation: Practice and policy guidelines for enhancing paternal responsibility. New Male Studies, 3(4), 50–62.

MacDonald, W. L. & DeMaris, A. (2002). Stepfather–stepchild relationship quality. Journal of Family Issues, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X02023001006

Maclean, M. J., Drake, D., & Mckillop, D. (2016). Perceptions of stepfathers’ obligations to financially support stepchildren. Journal of Family Economic Issues, 37, 285–296.

Marsiglio, W. (2004). When stepfathers claim stepchildren: A conceptual analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(1), 22–39.

Marsiglio, W. & Hinojosa, R. (2007). Managing the multi-father family: Stepfathers as father allies. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(3). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00409.x

Martin-Uzzi, M. & Duval-Tsioles, D. (2013). The experience of remarried couples in blended families. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 54(1), 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2012.743828

McNamee, C. B., Amato, P., & King, V. (2014). Nonresident father involvement with children and divorced women’s likelihood of remarriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12118

Michaels, M. (2006). Factors that contribute to stepfamily success. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 44(3), 53–66. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v44n03_04

Papernow, P. (2013). Surviving and thriving in stepfamily relationships: What works and what doesn’t. Routledge.

Papernow, P. (2015). Becoming a stepfamily: Patterns of development in remarried families. Taylor & Francis.

Papernow, P. (2018). Clinical guidelines for working with stepfamilies: What family, couple, individual, and child therapists need to know. Family Process, 57(1), 25–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12321

Petren, R. E., Garneau-Rosner, C. L., & Yildirim, E. D. (2018). Union stability among mothers and stepfathers: Contributions of stepfathers and biological fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 32(8). https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000482

Pettigrew, J. (2013). “I’ll take what I can get”: Identity development in the case of a stepfather. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 54(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2012.725360

Riness, L. S. & Sailor, J. L. (2015). An exploration of the lived experience of step-motherhood. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 56(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2015.1012702

Robertson, A., Adler-Baeder, F., Collins, A., DeMarco, D., Fein, D., & Schramm, D. (2006). Meeting the needs of married, low-income stepfamily couples in marriage education services. ABT Associates Inc.

Sanner, C., Ganong, L., & Coleman, M. (2020). Shared children in stepfamilies: Experiences living in a hybrid family structure. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12631

Scott, S. B., Rhoades, G. K., Stanley, S. M., Allen, E. S., & Markman, H. J. (2013). Reasons for divorce and recollections of premarital intervention: Implications for improving relationship education. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032025

Shapiro, D. N., & Stewart, A. J. (2011). Parenting stress, perceived child regard, and depressive symptoms among stepmothers and biological mothers. Family Relations, 60(5), 533–544.

Stewart, S. D. (2005). Boundary ambiguity in stepfamilies. Journal of Family Issues, 26(7), 1002–1029. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X04273591

Visher, E. B. & Visher, J. S. (1996). Therapy with stepfamilies. Brunner/Mazel.

Visher, E. B. & Visher, J. S. (2013). Therapy with stepfamilies. Taylor & Francis.

Wheeler, S. (2015). Study reveals “blended family” myth. The Free Library. Retrieved April 4, 2023, from https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Study+Reveals+ Blended+Family +Myth.-a0344651063

White, L. & Gilbreth, J. G. (2001). When children have two fathers: Effects of relationships with stepfathers and noncustodial fathers on adolescent outcomes. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00155.x

Wirihana, L., Welch, A., Williamson, M., Christensen, M., Bakon, S., & Craft, J. (2018). Using Colaizzi’s method of data analysis to explore the experiences of nurse academics teaching on satellite campuses. Nurse Researcher, 25(4), 30–34. https://doi.org/10.7748/nr.2018.e1516

Yuan, A. S., & Hamilton, H. A. (2006). Stepfather involvement and adolescent well-being. Journal of Family Issues, 27(9). https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X06289214